Rules of the air (ICAO Annex 2 → SERA)

Applicability

SERA applies to aircraft operating into, within, or out of the Union, and to aircraft bearing the nationality and registration marks of a Member State operating in any airspace, to the extent they do not conflict with rules of the overflown State SERA.2001@2025-05-01. Over the high seas, Annex 2 to the Chicago Convention applies without exception SERA.1001@2025-05-01.

Compliance and PIC Responsibility

Operation of an aircraft in flight, on the movement area, or at an operating site must comply with the general rules and applicable local provisions, including AIP-published aerodrome regulations GM1 SERA.2005@2026-07-18; additionally, when in flight, with either VFR or IFR SERA.2005@2025-05-01.

The PIC is responsible for compliance whether or not manipulating the controls, and may depart from these rules only where absolutely necessary for safety SERA.2010@2025-05-01. Before a flight away from the vicinity of an aerodrome, and for all IFR flights, pre-flight action must include a careful study of available current weather reports and forecasts, taking into consideration fuel/energy requirements and taking into consideration an alternative course of action if the flight cannot be completed as planned SERA.2010@2025-05-01.

General Rules

Aircraft shall not be operated negligently or recklessly so as to endanger life or property of others SERA.3101@2025-05-01. Nothing in SERA relieves the PIC from taking action — including ACAS resolution advisory manoeuvres — as will best avert collision SERA.3201@2025-05-01. Aircraft shall not be operated in such proximity to others as to create a collision hazard SERA.3205@2025-05-01. Vigilance for potential collisions is important at all times, including while operating on the movement area GM1 SERA.3201@2026-07-18.

Minimum heights: Except when necessary for take-off or landing (the terms include touch-and-go, go-around, and missed approach at aerodrome or operating sites where an obstacle clearance assessment has been conducted and approved GM3 SERA.3105@2026-07-18), or by permission from the competent authority, aircraft shall not be flown over congested areas or open-air assemblies unless at a height permitting an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface SERA.3105@2025-05-01.

Right-of-way SERA.3210@2025-05-01: The aircraft holding right-of-way maintains heading and speed. An aircraft aware that another's manoeuvrability is impaired shall give way to it. An aircraft required to give way avoids passing over, under, or in front of the other unless passing well clear and accounting for wake turbulence.

• Head-on: each alters heading to the right.
• Converging (same level): the aircraft with the other on its right gives way — except: power-driven heavier-than-air give way to airships, sailplanes, and balloons; airships to sailplanes and balloons; sailplanes to balloons; power-driven aircraft to aircraft which are seen to be towing other aircraft or objects.
• Overtaking: defined as approaching from the rear on a line forming an angle of less than 70° from the plane of symmetry of the other. The overtaking aircraft alters heading to the right and remains obligated until entirely past and clear. A sailplane overtaking another sailplane may alter course to the right or to the left.
• Landing: all aircraft give way to aircraft landing or in the final stages of approach. When two or more heavier-than-air aircraft approach for landing, higher-level gives way to lower-level; the lower-level must not cut in front of one in final approach or overtake it. Power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft shall give way to sailplanes regardless.
• Emergency landing: an aircraft that is aware another is compelled to land shall give way to it.
• Taking off: taxiing aircraft give way to aircraft taking off or about to take off.

At a controlled aerodrome, aircraft stop and hold at all runway-holding positions unless explicitly cleared to enter or cross the runway by the aerodrome control tower. Aircraft also stop and hold at all lighted stop bars and may proceed when the lights are switched off SERA.3210@2025-05-01.

Lights SERA.3215@2025-05-01: At night, all aircraft in flight must display anti-collision lights and, except for balloons, navigation lights; other lights must not be displayed if likely to be mistaken for these. Aircraft fitted with anti-collision lights shall also display them during the day. A pilot may switch off or reduce the intensity of flashing lights if they do or are likely to adversely affect the satisfactory performance of duties or subject an outside observer to harmful dazzle.

Aerodrome operations SERA.3225@2025-05-01: Observe other traffic, conform with or avoid the traffic pattern. Except for balloons: make all turns to the left when approaching to land and after take-off, unless otherwise indicated or instructed by ATC; land and take off into wind unless safety, the runway configuration, or air traffic considerations determine that a different direction is preferable.

Visual Flight Rules

VMC minima (Table S5-1) SERA.5001@2025-05-01:

| Altitude band | Airspace | Flight vis. | Cloud separation | |---|---|---|---| | At and above 3 050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL | A–G | 8 km | 1 500 m horiz. / 300 m (1 000 ft) vert. | | Below 3 050 m, above 900 m (3 000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1 000 ft) above terrain, whichever is the higher | A–G | 5 km | 1 500 m / 300 m (1 000 ft) | | At and below 900 m (3 000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1 000 ft) above terrain, whichever is the higher | A–E | 5 km | 1 500 m / 300 m (1 000 ft) | | At and below 900 m (3 000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1 000 ft) above terrain, whichever is the higher | F–G | 5 km* | Clear of cloud, surface in sight |

* The competent authority may permit reduced flight visibility to not less than 1 500 m at ≤140 kts IAS or in low-traffic areas at low levels; for helicopters, not less than 800 m if manoeuvred at a speed that will give adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision SERA.5001@2025-05-01.

VFR operations SERA.5005@2025-05-01: Except when operating as a special VFR flight, VFR flights shall be flown in conditions equal to or greater than Table S5-1. Except with ATC clearance, VFR flights shall not take off or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter its aerodrome traffic zone or circuit, when reported conditions are below: ceiling less than 450 m (1 500 ft) or ground visibility less than 5 km. Minimum heights (except T/O, landing, or permission): 300 m (1 000 ft) above the highest obstacle within 600 m radius over congested areas or assemblies; 150 m (500 ft) above ground, water, or the highest obstacle within 150 m radius elsewhere. Except where otherwise indicated in ATC clearances or specified by the competent authority, VFR in level cruising above 900 m (3 000 ft) from the ground or water, or a higher datum as specified by the competent authority, shall be flown at cruising levels per Appendix 3. VFR shall not be operated above FL 195 (with limited exceptions) or at transonic/supersonic speeds unless authorised.

Night VFR (where permitted by the competent authority) SERA.5005@2025-05-01: File a flight plan if leaving the aerodrome vicinity. Establish and maintain two-way radio on the appropriate ATS channel, when available. Apply Table S5-1 minima with the following modifications: the ceiling shall not be less than 450 m (1 500 ft); the reduced visibility provisions of S5-1(a) and (b) shall not apply; in airspace classes B–G, at and below 900 m (3 000 ft) AMSL or 300 m (1 000 ft) above terrain, whichever is the higher, the pilot shall maintain continuous sight of the surface. Except during T/O or landing or with specific authorisation, fly at or above the State's minimum altitude — or if none established: 600 m (2 000 ft) above the highest obstacle located within 8 km of the estimated position of the aircraft over high terrain or mountainous areas; 300 m (1 000 ft) above the highest obstacle located within 8 km of the estimated position of the aircraft elsewhere.

Special VFR SERA.5010@2025-05-01: Authorised within a control zone with ATC clearance. Except when otherwise permitted by the competent authority for helicopters in special cases such as, but not limited to, police, medical, SAR, and firefighting operations, the following conditions shall apply: day operations only, unless otherwise permitted by the competent authority; clear of cloud and with the surface in sight; flight visibility not less than 1 500 m (helicopters: 800 m); 140 kts IAS or less. ATC shall not issue an SVFR clearance to take off, land, or enter the aerodrome traffic circuit within a control zone when conditions are: ground visibility less than 1 500 m (helicopters: 800 m) or ceiling less than 180 m (600 ft). The 140 kt limit is the absolute maximum acceptable speed when visibility is 1 500 m or more; lower speeds should be applied at lower visibilities according to local conditions GM1 SERA.5010@2026-07-18 AMC1 SERA.5010@2026-07-18.

Signals

Visual, light, and ground–air signals are not covered by the EU SERA corpus units provided (ICAO-framework material).

Interception of Civil Aircraft

Aircraft known or believed to be in a state of emergency, including being subjected to unlawful interference, shall receive maximum consideration, assistance, and priority over other aircraft, as may be necessitated by the circumstances, from ATS units SERA.11001@2025-05-01; subsequent ATC actions are based on pilot intentions, the overall air traffic situation, and real-time contingency dynamics SERA.11001@2025-05-01. In an emergency descent, the pilot should navigate as deemed appropriate by the pilot; set transponder Code 7700 and, if applicable, select the appropriate ADS-B/ADS-C emergency mode; advise ATS of the descent and, if able, intentions; turn on exterior lights; and watch for conflicting traffic visually and via ACAS GM1 SERA.11001@2026-07-18. Interception procedures applicable to the intercepting aircraft are not covered by the EU corpus (ICAO-framework material).

This block connects to your school's own Operations Manual (OM-A/B/C/D). In the full product it shows, cited to your manual, how YOUR organisation implements the regulation above — private to your school. (Demo placeholder.)

The following cases are provided as illustrative context only and do not constitute regulatory sources.

Airspace violation — applicability and sovereignty CASE-1: A Russian drone violated Romanian airspace in July 2026, prompting Ukraine's foreign minister to call for stronger partner measures against Russia. The incident marks the outer boundary of SERA's applicability: SERA governs civil aircraft operating into or within the Union, while State aircraft under Article 3 of the Chicago Convention remain outside the civil rules regime. Any aircraft entering controlled airspace without authorisation triggers the emergency and unlawful-interference framework under which ATS units are required to give the aircraft maximum consideration and priority over other traffic.

Structural emergency in flight CASE-3: On a Ryanair-Air Malta Boeing 737-800 departing Thessaloniki, a window blew out during flight, partially ejecting a passenger; fellow passengers and crew prevented a fatal outcome. The incident reinforces the PIC's overriding duty to take action as will best avert harm — including departure from the rules of the air when absolutely necessary for safety — and illustrates the emergency-descent procedure framework (Code 7700, ADS-B/ADS-C emergency selection, ATS notification, exterior lighting, ACAS vigilance) that applies when a rapid abnormal descent is required.

Disruptive passenger conduct CASE-2: Flight attendants report intoxicated and assaultive passenger behaviour on commercial flights, including attempted assault of crew. Passenger conduct falls outside SERA's direct scope, which addresses the operation of aircraft rather than individual on-board conduct. However, the PIC's overarching duty not to operate an aircraft in a negligent or reckless manner so as to endanger life or property of others extends to responsibility for managing hazardous behaviour that threatens the safety of the flight.